Death of a Salesman Critical insights Essay

In a 2003 interview with his biographer, Christopher Bigsby, about the inherent structure of his plays, Arthur Miller explained, â€Å"It’s all about the language† (Bigsby, â€Å"Miller†). Miller’s declaration about the centrality of language in the creation of drama came at the end of his almost seventy-year career. He had completed his final play, Finishing the Picture, and a little more than a year later, he became ill and subsequently died in February 2005. Thus Miller’s statement can be seen as a final avowal about how language operates in dramatic dialogue, a concern that had obsessed him since the start of his career when he wrote his first play, No Villain, at the University of Michigan in 1935. Despite Miller’s proclamation, not enough critical attention has been paid to the sophisticated use of language that pervades his dialogue. Throughout his career, Miller often was subject to reviews in which critics mostly excoriated him for what they judged as a failed use of language in his plays. For example, in the Nation review of the original production of Death of a Salesman in 1949, Joseph Wood Krutch criticized the play for â€Å"its failure to go beyond literal meaning and its undistinguished dialogue. Unlike Tennessee Williams, Miller does not have a unique sensibility, new insight, fresh imagination or a gift for language† (283-84). In 1964, Richard Gilman judged that After the Fall lacks structural focus and contains vague rhetoric. He concluded that Miller’s â€Å"verbal inadequacy [has] never been more flagrantly exhibited† (6). John Simon’s New York review of the 1994 Broadway production of Broken Glass opined that â€Å"Miller†™s ultimate failure is his language: Tone-deafness in a playwright is only a shade less bad than in a composer.† In a June 2009 review of Christopher Bigsby’s authorized biography of Miller, Terry Teachout judged that Miller â€Å"too often made the mistake of using florid, pseudo-poetic language† (72). These reviews illustrate how, as a language stylist, Arthur Miller was underappreciated, too often overshadowed by his contemporary Tennessee Williams, whose major strength as a dramatist for many critics lies in the â€Å"lyricism† of his plays. As Arthur K. Oberg pointed out, â€Å"In the established image, Miller’s art is masculine and craggy; Williams’, poetic and delicate† (303). Because Miller has so often been pigeonholed as a â€Å"social† dramatist, most of the criticism of his work focuses on the cultural relevance of his plays and ignores detailed discussions of his language–especially of its poetic elements. Most critics are content to regard his dialogue as â€Å"colloquial,† judging that Miller best used what Leonard Moss described as â€Å"the common man’s language† (52) to reflect the social concerns of his characters. The assumption is often made that the manufacturers, salesmen, Puritan farmers, dockwork ers, housewives, policemen, doctors, lawyers, executives, and bankers who compose the bulk of Miller’s characters speak a realistic prose dialogue–a style that is implicitly antithetical to poetic language. This prevailing opinion of Miller as a dramatist who merely uses the common man’s language has been reinforced largely by a lack of in-depth critical analyses of how figurative language works in his canon. In his November 1998 review of the Chicago run of the fiftieth anniversary production of Death of a Salesman, Ben Brantley noted that, â€Å"as recent Miller scholarship has suggested again and again, the play’s images and rhythms have the patterns of poetry† (E3). In reality, though, relatively few critics have thoroughly examined this aspect not only of Salesman but also of Miller’s entire dramatic canon.1 Thomas M. Tammaro judges â€Å"that critical attention to Miller’s drama has been lured from textual analysis to such non-textual concerns as biography and Miller as a social dramatist† (10).2 Moreover, classroom discussions of Miller’s masterpieces Death of a Salesman and The Crucible (1953) mostly focus on these biographical an d social concerns in addition to characterization and thematic issues but rarely discuss language and dialogue. Five years after his passing, it is time to recognize that Arthur Miller created a unique dramatic idiom that undoubtedly marks him as significant language stylist within twentieth- and twenty-first-century  American and world drama. More readers and critics should see his dialogue not exclusively as prose but also as poetry, what Gordon W. Couchman has called Miller’s â€Å"rare gift for the poetic in the colloquial† (206). Although Miller seems to work mostly in a form of colloquial prose, there are many moments in his plays when the dialogue clearly elevates to poetry. Miller often takes what appear to be the colloquialisms, clichà ©s, and idioms of the common man’s language and reveals them as poetic language, especially by shifting words from their denotative to connotative meanings. Moreover, he significantly employs the figurative devices of metaphor, symbol, and imagery to give poetic significance to prose dialect. In addition, in many texts Miller embeds series of metaphors–many are extended–that possess particular connotations within the societies of the individual plays. Most important, these figurative devices significantly support the tragic conflicts and social themes that are the focus of every Miller play. By deftly mixing these figurative devices of symbolism, imagery, and metaphor with colloquial prose dialogue, Miller combines prose and poetry to create a unique d ramatic idiom. Most critics, readers, and audiences seem to overlook this aspect of Miller’s work: the poetry is in the prose and the prose is in the poetry. Indeed, poetic elements pervade most of Miller’s plays. For example, in All My Sons, religious allusions, symbols, and images place the themes of sacrifice and redemption in a Christian context. In Death of a Salesman, the extended metaphors of sports and trees convey Willy Loman’s struggle to achieve the American Dream. In The Crucible, the poetic language illustrates the conflicts that polarize the Salem community as a series of opposing images–heat and cold, white and black, light and dark, soft and hard–signify the Salemites’ dualistic view of the world. In A View from the Bridge, metaphors of purity and innocence give mythic importance to Eddie Carbone’s sexual, psychological, and moral struggles. After the Fall uses extended metaphors of childhood and religion to support Quentin’s psychological quest for redemption. The Ride Down Mt. Morgan connects metaphors of transportation and travel to Lyman Felt’s literal and figurat ive fall, and Broken Glass uses images of mirrors and glass to relate  the world of the European Jew at the beginning of the Holocaust to Sylvia and Phillip Gellburg’s shattered sexual world. That most critics continue to fail to recognize Miller’s sophisticated use of poetic elements is striking, for it is this very facility for which many other playwrights are praised, and the history of drama is intimately intertwined with the history of poetry. For most of Western dramatic history, plays were written in verse: the ancient Greek playwrights of the fifth century b.c.e. composed their tragedies in a verse frequently accompanied by music; the rhyming couplets of the Everyman dramatist were the de rigueur medieval form; and English Renaissance plays were poetic masterpieces. Shakespeare’s supremacy as a dramatist lies in his adaptation of the early modern English language into a dramatic dialogue that combines prose and poetry. For example, Hamlet’s â€Å"quintessence of dust† speech is lyrical prose. In the twentieth century, critics praised the verse plays of T. S. Eliot, Maxwell Anderson, Christopher Isherwood, and W. H. Auden. Even more baffling about this critical neglect is that Miller readily acknowledged his attraction to poetry and dramatic verse. His views on language, particularly poetic language, are evident in the prodigious number of essays he produced throughout his career. Criticism has mostly ignored this large body of nonfiction writing in which Miller frequently expounds on the nature of language and dialogue, the tension between realistic prose and poetic language in twentieth-century drama, and the complex evolution of poetic language throughout his plays.3 For example, in his 1993 essay â€Å"About Theatre Language† he writes: It was inevitable that I had to confront the problem of dramatic language. . . .I gradually came to wonder if the essential pressure toward poetic dramatic language–if not of stylization itself–came from the inclusion of society as a major element in the play’s story or vision. Manifestly, prose realism was the language of the individual and private life, poetry the language of man in crowds, in society. Put another way, prose is the language of family relations; it is the inclusion of the larger world beyond that naturally opens a play to the poetic. . . . How to find a style that would at one and the same time deeply engage an American audience, which insisted on a recognizable reality of characters, locales, and themes, while opening the stage to considerations of public morality and the mythic social fates–in short, the invisible? (82) * * * Miller’s attraction to poetic dramatic dialogue can be traced back to his development as a playwright, particularly his time as a student at the University of Michigan in the mid-1930s and the early years of his great successes in the 1940s and 1950s, when his views on dramatic form, structure, aesthetics, and language were evolving. Miller knew little about the theater when he arrived in Ann Arbor from his home in Brooklyn, but during these formative college years, he became aware of German expressionism, and he read August Strindberg and Henrik Ibsen, whom he often acknowledged as major influences on him. Christopher Bigsby has pointed out that Miller always remembered the effect that reading Greek and Elizabethan playwrights at college had on him (Critical Study 419). However, Miller was markedly affected by the social-protest work of Clifford Odets. In his autobiography, Timebends (1987), Miller describes how Odets’s 1930s plays Waiting for Lefty (1935), Awake and S ing (1935), and Golden Boy (1937) had â€Å"sprung forth a new phenomenon, a leftist challenge to the system, the poet suddenly leaping onto the stage and disposing of middle-class gentility, screaming and yelling and cursing like somebody off the Manhattan streets† (229). Most important for Miller, Odets brought to American drama a concern for language: â€Å"For the very first time in America, language itself had marked a playwright as unique† (229). To Miller, Odets was â€Å"The only poet, I thought, not only in the social protest theater, but in all of New York† (212). After Miller won his first Avery Hopwood Award at Michigan, he was sent to Professor Kenneth Rowe, whose chief contribution to Miller’s development was cultivating his interest in the dynamics of play construction. Odets and Rowe clearly were considerably strong influences on Miller as he developed  his concern with language and his form broke out of what he termed the â€Å"dusty naturalistic habit † (Timebends 228) of Broadway, but other influences would also compel him to write dramatic verse. The work of Thornton Wilder, particularly Our Town (1938), spoke to him, and in Timebends Miller acknowledges that Our Town was the nearest of the 1930s plays in â€Å"reaching for lyricism† (229). Tennessee Williams is another playwright whom Miller frequently credited with influencing his art and the craft of his language. He credited the newness of The Glass Menagerie (1944) to the play’s â€Å"poetic lift† (Timebends 244) and was particularly struck b y A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), proclaiming that Williams had given him license to speak in dramatic language â€Å"at full throat† (Timebends 182). Moreover, Miller practiced what he had learned and espoused. In fact, he reported that when he was first beginning his career he was â€Å"up to [his] neck† in writing many of his full-length and radio plays in verse (â€Å"Interview† 98). When he graduated from Michigan and started his work with the Federal Theatre Project in 1938, he wrote The Golden Years, a verse play about Montezuma. In a letter to Professor Rowe, he reported that he found writing verse much easier than writing prose: â€Å"I made the discovery that in verse you are forced to be brief and to the point. Verse squeezes out fat and you’re left with the real meaning of the language† (Bigsby, Arthur Miller 155). Also, he explained that much of Death of a Salesman and all of The Crucible were originally written in verse; the one-act version of A View from the Bridge (1955) was written in an intriguing mixture of verse and prose, and Miller regretted his failure to do the same in The America n Clock (1980) (Bigsby, Critical Introduction 136). However, Miller found an American theater hostile to the poetic form. Miller himself pointed out that the United States had no tradition of dramatic verse (â€Å"Interview† 98) as compared to Europe. In the 1930s, Maxwell Anderson was one of the few American playwrights incorporating blank verse into his plays, and the English theater witnessed some interest in poetic drama in the 1940s and 1950s, most notably with Christopher Fry and T. S. Eliot. In reality, dramatic verse had been in sharp decline since the late nineteenth century, when the realistic prose dialogue used by Henrik Ibsen in Norway  was adopted by George Bernard Shaw in England and then later employed by Eugene O’Neill in the United States. Miller also judged that American actors had difficulty speaking the verse line (â€Å"Interview† 98). Further, Miller came of age at a time when American audiences were demanding realism, the musical comedy was gaining in dominance, and commercial Broadway pr oducers were disinterested in verse drama. Christopher Bigsby has pointed out that Miller was â€Å"in his own mind, an essentially poetic, deeply metaphoric writer who had found himself in a theater resistant to such, particularly on Broadway, which he continued to think of as his natural home, despite its many deficiencies† (Critical Study 358). Struggling with how to accept this reality, Miller accommodated his natural inclination to verse by developing a dramatic idiom that reconciled his poetic urge with the realism demanded by the aesthetics of the American stage. Thus he infused poetic language into his prose dialogue. * * * Let’s examine how some of these poetic devices–symbolism, imagery, and metaphor– operate in Miller’s masterpiece, Death of a Salesman. From the outset of the play, Miller makes trees and sports into metaphors signifying Willy Loman’s struggle to achieve the American Dream within the competitive American business world. Trees symbolize Willy’s dreams, sports the competition for economic success.4 Miller sustains these metaphors throughout the entire text with images of boxing, burning, wood, nature, and fighting to make them into crucial unifying structures. In addition, Miller’s predilection for juxtaposing the literal and figurative meanings of words is particularly evident in Salesman as the abstract concepts of competition and dreaming are vivified by concrete objects and actions such as boxing, fists, lumber, and ashes. Trees are an excellent illustration of how Miller uses literal and figurative meanings. Two references in act 1, scene 1, immediately establish their importance in the play. When Willy unexpectedly arrives home, he explains that he was unable to drive to Portland for his sales call because he kept  becoming absorbed in the countryside scenery, where â€Å"the trees are so thick, and the sun is warm† (14). Although these trees merely seem to distract Willy from driving, he also indicates their connection to dreaming. He tells Linda: â€Å"I absolutely forgot I was driving. If I’d’ve gone the other way over the white line I might’ve killed somebody. So I went on again–and five minutes later I’m dreamin’ again† (14). Willy’s inability to concentrate on driving indicates an emotional conflict larger than mere daydreaming. The play reveals how Willy often exists in dreams rather than reality–dreams of being well liked , of success for his son Biff, of his â€Å"imaginings.† All of these dreams intimately connect to Willy’s confrontation with his failure to achieve the tangible aspects of the American Dream. He is a traveling salesman, and his inability to drive symbolizes his inability to sell, which guarantees that he will fail in the competition to be a â€Å"hot-shot salesman.† The action of the play depicts the last day of Willy’s life and how Willy is increasingly escaping the reality of his failure in reveries of the past, to the point where he often cannot differentiate between reality and illusion. The repetition of the mention of trees in Willy’s second speech in scene 1 cements the importance of trees in the play as a metaphor for these dreams. He complains to Linda about the apartment houses surrounding the Loman home: â€Å"They should’ve had a law against apartment houses. Remember those two beautiful elm trees out there? When Biff and I hung the swing between them?† (17). However, these trees are not the trees of the real time of the play; rather, they exist in Willy’s past and, more important, in the â€Å"imaginings† of his mind, the place where the more important dramatic action of the play takes place. Miller’s working title for Death of a Salesman was â€Å"The Inside of His Head,† and certainly Willy’s longing for the trees of the past illustrates how dreaming works in his mind. Throughout the entire play, trees–and all the other images connected to them–are complicated symbols of an idyllic past for which Willy longs in his dreams, a world where Biff and Hap are young, where Willy can believe himself a hot-shot salesman, where Brooklyn seems an unspoiled wilderness. The irony is that, in reality, the past was not as idyllic as Willy recalls, and the play gradually unfolds the reality of  Willy’s failures. The metaphor of trees also supports Willy’s unresolved struggle with his son Biff. Willy’s memory of Biff and himself hanging a hammock between the elms is ironic as the two beautiful trees’ absence in the present symbolizes Willy’s failed dreams for Biff. Throughout the play, Miller significantly expands upon the figurative meaning of trees. For example, in act 1, scene 4, Willy responds to Hap’s claims that he will retire Willy for life by remarking: You’ll retire me for life on seventy goddam dollars a week? And your women and your car and your apartment, and you’ll retire me for life! Christ’s sake I couldn’t get past Yonkers today! Where are you guys, where are you? The woods are burning! I can’t drive a car! (41) Willy’s warning that â€Å"the woods are burning† extends the tree metaphor by introducing an important sense of destruction to the trees of Willy’s idyllic world of the past. Since the trees are so identified with Willy’s dreams, the image implies that his dreams are burning too–his dreams for himself as a successful salesman and his dreams for Biff and Hap. The images of burning and destruction are crucial in the play, especially when Linda reveals Willy’s suicide attempts–his own form of destruction, which he enacts at play’s end. We realize that since Willy is so associated with his dreams, he will die when they burn. In fact, Willy repeats this same exact line in act 2 when he arrives at Frank’s Chop House and announces his firing to Hap and Biff. He says: â€Å"I’m not interested in stories about the past or any crap of that kind because the woods are burning, boys, you understand? There’s a big blaze going on all around. I was fired today† (107). This line not only repeats Willy’s warning cry from act 1 but also foreshadows Biff’s climactic plea to Willy to â€Å"take that phony dream and burn it† (133). The burning metaphor–now ironic–also appears in Willy’s imagining in the Boston hotel room. As Willy continues to ignore Biff’s knock on the door, the woman says, â€Å"Maybe the hotel’s on fire.† Willy replies, â€Å"It’s a mistake, there’s no fire† (116). Of course, nothing is threatened by a literal fire–only by the figurative blaze inside Willy’s head. Once aware of how tree images operate in the play, a reader (or keen theatergoer) can note the cacophony of other references that sustain the metaphor in other scenes. For example, Willy wants Biff to help trim the tree branch that threatens to fall on the Loman house; Biff and Hap steal lumber; Willy plaintively remembers his father carving flutes; Willy tells Ben that Biff can â€Å"fell trees†; Willy mocks Biff for wanting to be a carpenter and similarly mocks Charley and his son Bernard because they â€Å"can’t hammer a nail†; Ben buys timberland in Alaska; Biff burns his sneakers in the furnace; Willy speculates about his need for a â€Å"little lumber† (72) to build a guest house for the boys when they get married; Willy is proud of weathering a twenty-five-year mortgage with â€Å"all the cement, the lumber† (74) he has put into the house; Willy explains to Ben that â€Å"I am building something with this firm,† something â€Å"you ca n’t feel . . . with your hand like timber† (86). Finally, there are â€Å"the leaves of day appearing over everything† in the graveyard in â€Å"Requiem† (136). Miller similarly uses boxing in literal and figurative ways throughout the play. In act 1, scene 2, Biff suggests to Hap that they buy a ranch to â€Å"use our muscles. Men built like we are should be working out in the open† (24). Hap responds to Biff with the first sports reference in the text: â€Å"That’s what I dream about, Biff. Sometimes I want to just rip my clothes off in the middle of the store and outbox that goddam merchandise manager. I mean I can outbox, outrun, and outlift anybody in that store† (24). As an athlete, Biff, it seems, should introduce the sports metaphor, but, ironically, the sport with which he is identified–football–is not used in any extensive metaphoric way in the play.5 Instead, boxing becomes the extended sports metaphor of the text, and it is not introduced by Biff but rather by Hap, who reinforces it throughout the play to show how Willy has prepared him and Biff only for physical competition, not business or eco nomic competition. Thus Hap expresses his frustration at being a second-rate worker by stressing his physical superiority over his managers. Unable to win in economic competition, he longs to beat his coworkers in a physical match, and it is this contrast between economic and physical competition that intensifies the dramatic interplay between the literal and the figurative language of the play. In fact, the very competitiveness of the American economic system in which Willy and Hap work, and that Biff hates, is consistently put on physical terms in the play. A failure in the competitive workplace, Hap uses the metaphor of physical competition–boxing man to man–yet the play details how Hap was considered less physically impressive than Biff when the two were boys. As an adult, Hap competes in the only physical competition he can win–sex. He even uses the imagery of rivalry when talking about his sexual conquests of the store managers’ girlfriends: â€Å"Maybe I just have an overdeveloped sense of competition or something† (25). Perhaps knowing that they cannot win, the Lomans resort to a significant amount of cheating in competition: Willy condones Biff’s theft of a football, Biff cheats on his exams, Hap takes bribes, and Willy cheats on Linda. All of this cheating signifies the Lomans’ moral failings as well. The boxing metaphor also illustrates the contrast between Biff and Hap. Boxing as a sports metaphor is quite different from the expected football metaphor: a boxer relies completely on personal physical strength while fighting a single opponent, whereas in football, a team sport, the players rely on group effort and group tactics. Thus the difference between Biff and Hap–Hap as evoker of the boxing metaphor and Biff as a player of a team sport–is emphasized throughout the text. Moreover, the action of the play relies on the clash of dreams between Biff and Willy. Biff is Willy’s favorite son, and Willy’s own dreams and disappointments are tied to him. Yet Hap, the second-rate son, the second-rate physical specimen, the second-rate worker, is the son who is most like Willy in profession, braggadocio, and sexual swagger. Ultimately, at the play’s end, in â€Å"Requiem,† the boxing metaphor ironically points out Hap’s significance as the actual competitor for Willy’s dream, for he decides to stay in the city because Willy â€Å"fought it out here and this is where I’m gonna win it for him† (139). Biff’s boxing contrasts sharply with Hap’s. For example, Biff ironically performs a literal boxing competition with Ben, which juxtaposes with the figurative competition of the play. The boxing reinforces the emphasis that  has been placed on Biff as the most physically prepared â€Å"specimen† of the boys. Yet Biff is defeated by Ben; in reality he is ill prepared to fight a boxing match because it is a man-to-man competition, unlike football, the team sport at which he excelled. He is especially ill prepared for Uncle Ben’s kind of boxing match because it is not a fair match conducted on a level playing field. As Ben says: â€Å"Never fight fair with a stranger, boy. You’ll never get out of the jungle that way† (49). Thus the literal act of boxing possesses figurative significance. Willy has not conditioned Biff (or, by extension, Hap) for any fight–fair or unfair–in the larger figurative â€Å"jungle† of the play: th e workplace of the American economic system. Willy, too, uses a significant amount of boxing imagery, much of it quite violent. In the first imagining in act 1, Biff asks Willy about his recent sales trip, â€Å"Did you knock them dead, Pop?† and Willy responds, â€Å"Knocked ’em cold in Providence, slaughtered ’em in Boston† (33); when he relates to Linda how another salesman at F. H. Stewarts insulted him, Willy claims he â€Å"cracked him right across the face† (37), the same physical threat that he will later make against Charley in act 2 on the day of the Ebbets Field game. Willy wants to box Charley, challenging him, â€Å"Put up your hands. Goddam you, put up your hands† (68). Willy also says, â€Å"I’m gonna knock Howard for a loop† (74). Willy uses these violent physical terms against men he perceives as challengers and competitors. As with the tree metaphor, this one is sustained throughout the scenes with a plethora of boxing references: a punching bag is inscribed with Gene Tunney’s name; Hap challenges Bernard to box; Willy explains to Linda that the boys gathered in the cellar obey Biff because, â€Å"Well, that’s the training, the training†; Biff feebly attempts to box with Uncle Ben; Bernard remarks to Willy that Biff â€Å"never trained himself for anything† (92); Charley cheers on his son with a â€Å"Knock ’em dead, Bernard† (95) as Bernard leaves to argue a case in front of the Supreme Court; Willy, expressing to Bernard his frustration that Biff has done nothing with his life, says, â€Å"Why did he lay down?† (93). This last boxing reference, associated with taking a dive, is a remarkably imagistic way of describing how Biff initially cut down his life out of spite after discovering Willy’s infidelity. * * * Miller also uses images, symbols, and metaphors as central or unifying devices by employing repetition and recurrence–one of the central tenets of so-called cluster criticism, which was pioneered in the 1930s and 1940s.6 In short, cluster criticism argues that the deliberate repetition of words, images, symbols, and metaphors contributes to the unity of the work just as significantly as do plot, character, and theme. These clusters of words can operate both literally and figuratively in a text–as I. A. Richards notes in The Philosophy of Rhetoric–and, therefore, contribute significantly to the overall aesthetic and thematic impact. For example, in Arthur Miller, Dramatist, Edward Murray traces word repetition in The Crucible, examining how Miller, â€Å"in a very subtle manner, uses key words to knit together the texture of action and theme.† He notes, for example, the recurrent use of the word â€Å"soft† in the text (64). My own previous work on T he Crucible has examined how the tenfold repetition of the word â€Å"weight† supports one of the play’s crucial themes: how an individual’s struggle for truth often conflicts with society. Let’s examine an intriguing example of word repetition from Death of a Salesman.7 The words â€Å"paint† and â€Å"painting† appear five significant times in the play. The first is a literal use: at the end of act 1, Willy tells Biff during their argument, â€Å"If you get tired of hanging around tomorrow, paint the ceiling I put up in the living room† (45). This line echoes Willy’s previous mockery of Charley for not knowing how to put up a ceiling: â€Å"A man who can’t handle tools is not a man† (30). In both instances, Willy is asserting his superiority on the basis of his physical prowess, a point that is consistently emphasized in the play. The second time â€Å"paint† appears is in act 2, when Biff and Hap abandon Willy in Frank’s Chop House to leave with Letta and Miss Forsythe. Hap says to Letta: â€Å"No, that’s not my father. He’s just a guy. Come on, we’ll catch Biff, and honey we’re going to paint this town!† (91). Of course in this  line Miller uses the clichà © â€Å"Paint the town red† for its well-known meaning of having a wild night of partying and dissolution–although it is notable that Miller uses a truncated form of the phrase. Nevertheless, here the clichà © takes on new significance in the context of the play. Willy defines masculinity by painting a ceiling, but Hap defines it by painting the town with sexual debauchery and revelry, lording his physical superiority and his sexual conquests over other men. The third, fourth, and fifth repetitions occur in act 2 during the imagining in the hotel room when Biff discovers Willy with the woman. When the woman comes out of the bathroom, Willy says: â€Å"Ah–you better go back to your room. They must be finished painting by now. They’re painting her room so I let her take a shower here† (119). When she leaves, Willy attempts to convince Biff that â€Å"she lives down the hall–they’re painting. You don’t imagine–† (120). Here, painting is simultaneously literal and metaphorical because of its previous usage in the play–but with a high degree of irony. Willy’s feeble explanation that Miss Francis’s room is literally being painted is a cover-up for the reality that Willy himself has painted the town in Boston. Biff discovers that Willy’s manhood is defined by sexual infidelity–ultimately defining him as a â€Å"phony little fake.† * * * Another relatively unexplored aspect of Miller’s language is the names of his characters. Miller chooses his characters’ names for their metaphorical associations in most of his dramatic canon. Justin Kaplan and Anne Bernays’s 1997 text The Language of Names revived some interest in this technique, which is known as literary onomastics and is considered a somewhat minor part of contemporary literary criticism. Kaplan and Bernays examine the connotative value of names that function in texts as â€Å"symbolic, metaphoric, or allegorical discourse† (175). Although some scholars have discussed the use of this technique in individual Miller plays, most readers familiar with the body of Miller’s work notice how consistently he chooses the names of his characters to create symbols, irony, and points of contrast. For example, readers and critics who are familiar only with Death of a Salesman among Miller’s works have long noted that Willy’s last name literally marks him as a â€Å"low man,† although Miller himself chuckled at the overemphasis placed on this pun. He actually derived the name from a movie he had seen, The Testament of Dr. Mabuse, in which a completely mad character at the end of the film screams, â€Å"Lohman, Lohman, get me Lohman† (Timebends 177-79). To Miller, the man’s cry signified the hysteria he wanted to create in his salesman, Willy Loman. Many critics also have noted the significance of the name of Dave â€Å"Singleman,† the eighty-year-old salesman who stands alone as Willy’s ideal. Despite Miller’s consistent downplaying in interviews of the significance of his characters’ names, an examination of his technique reveals how extensively he connects his characters’ names to the larger social issues at the core of every play. For example, the last name of All My Sons’ Joe Keller, who manufactures faulty airplane parts and is indirectly responsible for the deaths of twenty-one pilots, resembles â€Å"killer.† In previous work on the play, I have noted the comparison of the Kellers to the Holy Family, and how, therefore, the names of Joe and his son, Chris, take on religious significance. Susan C. W. Abbotson has noted how the first name of The Ride Down Mt. Morgan’s Lyman Felt suggests the lying he has lived out. She also has analyzed the similarities between Loman and Lyman, and has argued that Lyman is a kind of alter ego to Willy some forty years later. Frank Ardolino has also examined how Miller employs Egyptian mytholog y in naming and depicting Hap (â€Å"Mythological†). An intriguing feature of Miller’s use of names is his repetition of the same name, or form of the same name, in his plays. It is striking how in Salesman Miller uses the name â€Å"Frank,† or variations of it, five times for five different characters, a highly unusual occurrence.8 In act 1, during Willy’s first imagining, when Linda complains to Biff that there is a cellar full of boys in the Loman house who do not know what to do with themselves, Frank is one of the boys whom Biff gets to clean up the furnace room. Not long after, at the end of the imagining, Frank is the name of the mechanic who fixes the carburetor of Willy’s Chevrolet. In act 2, in the moving scene in which  Howard effectively fires Willy and Willy is left alone in the office, Willy cries out three times for â€Å"Frank,† apparently Howard’s father and the original owner of the company, who, Willy claims, asked Willy to â€Å"name† Howard. Willy also meets the bo ys in Frank’s Chop House and, in the crucial discovery scene in the Boston hotel room, Willy introduces the woman to Biff as Miss Francis, â€Å"Frank† often being a nickname for Francis. There are significant figurative uses of â€Å"Frank† too, for, although the word means â€Å"honest† or â€Å"candid,† all of the Franks in Salesman are clearly associated with work that is not completely honest. Biff uses the boy Frank and his companions to clean the furnace room and hang up the wash–chores that he should be doing himself. Willy somewhat questions the repair job that the mechanic Frank does on â€Å"that goddam Chevrolet.† Despite Willy’s idolizing of his boss, Frank Wagner, Linda indicates that Frank, perhaps, promised Willy a partnership as a member of the firm, a promise that kept Willy from joining Ben in Alaska and that was never made good on by either Frank or his son, Howard. Miss Francis promises to put Willy through to the buyers in exchange for stockings and her sexual favors, but it is uncertain whether she holds up her end of the deal, since Willy certainly has never been a â€Å"hot-shot† salesman. And, of course, Frank’s Chop House is the place where Stanley tells Hap that the boss, presumably Frank, is going crazy over the â€Å"leak in the cash register.† Thus Miller clearly uses the name Frank with a high degree of irony, an important aspect of his use of figurative language in his canon. Of course, all this business dishonesty emphasizes how Salesman challenges the integrity of the American work ethic. Miller’s careful selection of names shows that he perhaps considered the names of his characters as part of each play’s network of figurative language. As Kaplan and Bernays note, â€Å"Names of characters . . . convey what their creators may already know and feel about them and how they want their readers to respond† (174). Thus, in his choice of names, Arthur Miller may very well be manipulating his audience before the curtain rises, as they sit and read the cast of characters in their playbills. Finally, being aware of Miller’s use of poetic language is crucial for  however we encounter his plays–as readers who analyze drama as text or as audience members in tune with the sound of the dialogue. It is, indeed, â€Å"all about the language†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthe language we read in the text and the language we hear on the stage. Notes 1. Although some critics have examined Miller’s colloquial prose, only a few have conducted studies of how poetic devices work in his dialogue. Leonard Moss, in his book-length study Arthur Miller, analyzes Miller’s language in a chapter on Death of a Salesman, a section of which is titled â€Å"Verbal and Symbolic Technique.† In an article titled â€Å"Death of a Salesman and Arthur Miller’s Search for Style,† Arthur K. Oberg considers Miller’s struggle with establishing a dramatic idiom. Oberg judges that Miller ultimately â€Å"arrives at something that approaches an American idiom to the extent that it exposes a colloquialism characterized by unusual image, spurious lyricism, and close-ended clichà ©Ã¢â‚¬  (305). He concludes that â€Å"the play’s text, although far from `bad poetry,’ tellingly moves toward the status of poetry without ever getting there† (310-11). My 2002 work A Language Study of Arthur Millerâ₠¬â„¢s Plays: The Poetic in the Colloquial traces Miller’s consistent use of figurative language from All My Sons to Broken Glass. In other studies discussing individual plays, some critics have noted poetic nuances in Miller’s language. In â€Å"Setting, Language, and the Force of Evil in The Crucible,† Penelope Curtis maintains that the language of the play is marked by what she calls â€Å"half-metaphor† (69), which Miller employs to suggest the play’s themes. In an article published in Notes on Contemporary Literature, John D. Engle explains the metaphor of law used by the lawyer Quentin in After the Fall. Lawrence Rosinger, in a brief Explicator article, traces the metaphors of royalty that appear in Death of a Salesman. 2. Thomas M. Tammaro also points out that the diminished prestige of language studies since the height of New Criticism may account for the lack of a sustained examination of imagery and symbolism in Miller’s work. Moreover, Tammaro notes that Miller’s plays were not subjected to New Critical theory  even when language studies were prominent (10). In his new authorized biography Arthur Miller: 1915-1962, Christopher Bigsby clearly recognizes Miller’s attempts to write verse drama, but this work is largely a critical biography and cultural study, not a close textual analysis. 3. Most notable among these works are the following: â€Å"The Family in Modern Drama,† which first appeared in The Atlantic Monthly in 1956; â€Å"On Social Plays,† which appeared as the original introduction to the one-act edition of A View from the Bridge and A Memory of Two Mondays; the introduction to his 1957 Collected Plays; â€Å"The American Writer: The American Theater,† first published in the Michigan Quarterly Review in 1982; â€Å"On Screenwriting and Language: Introduction to Everybody Wins,† first published in 1990; his 1993 essay â€Å"About Theatre Language,† which first appeared as an afterword to the published edition of The Last Yankee; and his March 1999 Harper’s article â€Å"On Broadway: Notes on the Past and Future of American Theater.† 4. For a more detailed discussion of these metaphors, see â€Å"Death of a Salesman: Unlocking the Rhetoric of Poetic Power† in my 2002 volume A Language Study of Arthur Miller’s Plays. Also, in â€Å"Figuring Our Past and Present in Wood: Wood Imagery in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman and The Crucible,† Will Smith traces what he describes as a â€Å"wood trope† in the plays. 5. When Biff discovers Willy with the woman in the hotel room in act 2, she refers to herself as a football (119-20) to indicate her humiliating treatment by Willy and, perhaps, all men. 6. Frederick Charles Kolbe, Caroline F. E. Spurgeon, and Kenneth Burke pioneered much of this criticism. For example, Spurgeon did groundbreaking work in discovering the clothes imagery and the image of the babe in Macbeth. Kenneth Burke, in The Philosophy of Literary Form, examines Clifford Odets’s Golden Boy as a play that uses language clusters, particularly the images of the â€Å"prizefight† and the â€Å"violin,† that operate both literally and symbolically in the text (33-35). 7. In his work Arthur Miller, Leonard Moss details the frequent repetitions of words in the text, such as â€Å"man,† â€Å"boy,† and â€Å"kid.† He notes that forms of the verb â€Å"make† occur forty-five times in thirty-three different usages, ranging from Standard English to slang expressions, among them â€Å"make mountains out of molehills,† â€Å"makin a hit,† â€Å"makin my future,† â€Å"make me laugh,† and â€Å"make a train.† He also notes the nine-time repetition of â€Å"make money† (48). Moss connects these expressions to Miller’s thematic intention: illustrating how the American work ethic dominates Willy’s life. 8. In â€Å"`I’m Not a Dime a Dozen! I Am Willy Loman!’: The Significance of Names and Numbers in Death of a Salesman,† Frank Ardolino takes a mainly psychological approach to the language of the play. He maintains that â€Å"Miller’s system of onomastic and numerical images and echoes forms a complex network which delineates Willy’s insanity and its effects on his family and job† (174). Ardolino explains that the name imagery reveals Biff’s and Willy’s failures. He sees the repetition of â€Å"Frank† as part of Miller’s use of geographical, personal, and business names that often begin with B, F, P, or S. Thus the names beginning with F â€Å"convey a conflict between benevolence and protection on the one hand and dismissal and degradation on the other† (177). Benevolent Franks are Willy’s boss, the boy Frank who cleans up, and the repairman Frank. Degrading Franks are Miss Francis and Frank’s Chop House, which contains the literal and psychological toilet where Willy has his climactic imagining of the hotel room in Boston. Works Cited Abbotson, Susan C. W. â€Å"From Loman to Lyman: The Salesman Forty Years On.† â€Å"The Salesman Has a Birthday†: Essays Celebrating the Fiftieth Anniversary of Arthur Miller’s â€Å"Death of a Salesman.† Ed. Stephen A. Marino. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2000. Ardolino, Frank. â€Å"`I’m Not a Dime a Dozen! I Am Willy Loman!’: The Significance of Names and Numbers in Death of a Salesman.† Journal of Evolutionary Psychology (August 2002): 174-84. ____________. â€Å"The Mythological Significance of Happy in Death of a Salesman.† The Arthur Miller Journal 4.1 (Spring 2009): 29-33. Bigsby, Christopher. Arthur Miller: A Critical Study. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. ____________. Arthur Miller: 1915-1962. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2008. ____________. A Critical Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Drama, Volume Two: Tennessee Williams, Arthur Miller, Edward Albee. New York: Cambridge UP, 1984. ____________. â€Å"Miller and Middle America.† Keynote address, Eighth International Arthur Miller Society Conference, Nicolet College, Rhinelander, WI, 3 Oct. 2003. Brantley, Ben. â€Å"A Dark New Production Illuminates Salesman.† New York Times 3 Nov. 1998: E1. Burke, Kenneth. The Philosophy of Literary Form. 2d ed. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1967. Couchman, Gordon W. â€Å"Arthur Miller’s Tragedy of Babbit.† Educational Theatre Journal 7 (1955): 206-11. Curtis, Penelope. â€Å"Setting, Language, and the Force of Evil in The Crucible.† Twentieth Century Interpretations of â€Å"The Crucible.† Ed. John H. Ferres. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972. Engle, John D. â€Å"The Metaphor of Law in After the Fall.† Notes on Contemporary Literature 9 (1979): 11-12. Gilman, Richard. â€Å"Getting It Off His Chest, But Is It Art?† Chicago Sun Book Week 8 Mar. 1964: 6, 13. Kaplan, Justin, and Anne Bernays. The Language of Names. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. Krutch, Joseph Wood. â€Å"Drama.† Nation 163 (1949): 283-84. Marino, Stephen. â€Å"Arthur Miller’s `Weight of Truth’ in The Crucible.† Modern Drama 38 (1995): 488-95. ____________. A Language Study of Arthur Miller’s Plays: The Poetic in the Colloquial. New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002. ____________. â€Å"Religious Language in Arthur Miller’s All My Sons.† Journal of Imagism 3 (1998): 9-28. Miller, Arthur. â€Å"About Theatre Language.† The Last Yankee. New York: Penguin, 1993. ____________. â€Å"The American Writer: The American Theater.† The Theatre Essays of Arthur Miller. Ed. Robert A. Martin and Steven R. Centola. New York: Da Capo Press, 1996. ____________. â€Å"Arthur Miller: An Interview.† Interview with Olga Carlisle and Rose Styron. 1966. Conversations with Arthur Miller. Ed. Matthew C. Roudanà ©. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1987. 85-111. ____________. â€Å"Death of a Salesman†: Text and Criticism. Ed. Gerald Weales. New York: Penguin Books, 1967. ____________. â€Å"The Family in Modern Drama.† The Theatre Essays of Arthur Miller. Ed. Robert A. Martin. New York: Viking Press, 1978. ____________. â€Å"Introduction to the Collected Plays.† The Theatre Essays of Arthur Miller. Ed. Robert A. Martin. New York: Viking Press, 1978. ____________. â€Å"On Broadway: Notes on the Past and Future of American Theater.† Harper’s Mar. 1999: 37-47. ____________. â€Å"On Screenwriting and Language: Introduction to Everybody Wins.† The Theatre Essays of Arthur Miller. Ed. Robert A. Martin and Steven R. Centola. New York: Da Capo Press, 1996. ____________. â€Å"On Social Plays.† The Theatre Essays of Arthur Miller. Ed. Robert A. Martin. New York: Viking Press, 1978. ____________. Timebends: A Life. New York: Grove Press, 1987. Moss, Leonard. Arthur Miller. New Haven, CT: College and University Press, 1967. ____________. â€Å"Arthur Miller and the Common Man’s Language.† Modern Drama 7 (1964): 52-59. Murray, Edward. Arthur Miller, Dramatist. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1967. Oberg, Arthur K. â€Å"Death of a Salesman and Arthur Miller’s Search for Style.† Criticism 9 (1967): 303-11. Otten, Terry. The Temptation of Innocence in the Dramas of Arthur Miller. Columbia: U of Missouri P, 2002. Richards, I. A. Richards on Rhetoric: I. A. Richards–Selected Essays, 1929-1974. Ed. Ann E. Berthoff. New York: Oxford UP, 1991. Rosinger, Lawrence. â€Å"Miller’s Death of a Salesman.† Explicator 45.2 (Winter 1987): 55-56. Simon, John. â€Å"Whose Paralysis Is It, Anyway?† New York 9 May 1994. Smith, Will. â€Å"Figuring Our Past and Present in Wood: Wood Imagery in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman and The Crucible.† Miller and Middle America: Essays on Arthur Miller and the American Experience. Ed. Paula T. Langteau. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2007. Spurgeon, Caroline F. E. Leading Motives in the Imagery of Shakespeare’s Tragedies. 1930. New York: Haskell House, 1970. Tammaro, Thomas M. â€Å"Introduction.† Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams: Research Opportunities and Dissertation Abstracts. Ed. Tetsumaro Hayashi. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1983. Teachout, Terry. â€Å"Concurring with Arthur Miller.† Commentary 127.6 (June 2009): 71-73.

The Story of the Next Hour

It was Richards who had conversed with the doctors and, in veiled hints that revealed in half concealing, informed the others as to the heartbreaking truth of the tragedy. It was he too who dealt with the necessary arrangements for the body whilst the remainder of the house was engulfed in a storm of grief. With a paralysed inability to accept its significance, Brently sunk into the depths of the roomy armchair that stood facing the open window. With his face masked by his cupped hands he remained there, screening from the view of Josephine the vast sea of tears that overwhelmed his face, lest it distressed her further. Richards feeling for the vast loss of his dear friend, put his arm about his shoulder as if to try and ease away the pain that had woven itself to him. However he was instructed by Brently of his need to be left in solitude and with that he retired from the room. Pressed down with physical exhaustion, he hauled his burden away up the stairs towards the only room in the house where Louise's presence lived on as strong as ever. On seeing this, Josephine also took to her feet and fled from the house with a sudden wild abandonment after being caught up in the event of the last two hours. Louise had once been an elixir of life to Brently. He had lived for her and had idolised her every move with admiration. As he passed her body on his way to their room, his sanctuary, he was struck dumb with how life like her delicate body looked. Her cheeks still bloomed as they had done the day she had agreed to marry him, blushing with the same tint of cherry just as when white lilies are crowded with roses and take on their red. Her eyes too, such deep green, as green as all the oceans of Neptune, still bore her soul and it opened the door to his heart and melted it. As he reached the door of the bedroom he and Louise had shared together for what seemed only a few moments in the vastness of eternity, he was reminded of her sweet nature by the delicious breath of her sweet perfume that lingered in the air and as he passed across the room he was sure he heard her voice somewhere in the distance proclaiming the love she felt. There stood, facing the open window, he reminisced on times forgone, his face, whose lines now bespoke repression, wet with tears. And as he gazed out of the window upon the world carrying on around him he could see the leaves falling from the trees, amber, brown, gold, signifying the end of one chapter and the beginning of a new. Just at that moment a faint tapping was heard at the door and Brently heard Josephine imploring for admission. â€Å"Brently, Richards will go with Louise if you wish. Its time to say your farewells† Traversing the staircase down to the open door Brently collected himself. It was only yesterday that he had felt like Louise and him were falling apart and had begun to detach the bond they once had shared. He then thought to the future for the first time since the incident and with a shock revelation and the realisation that he was now free to venture forward on whatever path he so did choose, he composed himself for his life to come. Peering out of the doorway, Brently now became conscious of the reality that stood before him; this would be the final opportunity to gaze upon his wife. Having been hit by this sudden awareness of the situation, his sight became focused towards the horse drawn cart preparing to draw away. Within a moment however, overcome with grief at this pivotal point in his life, he remained content with sharing in her presence alone and was left with a less desirous wish to fix his eyes upon her fragile body lest the pain be overbearing. To see her lying there, motionless and with her lifeblood drained from within would have been too shattering and the thought of letting her go too unbearable for contemplation. Having collected himself once more for the events, which were to follow, with a word of thanks to Richards for his assistance in the affairs of the day, he embraced the companion whom he valued so dearly, the companion who had relieved the ache that was trapped within his heart. â€Å"Take care of her for me† † I would do nothing less† With this Richards picked up his gripsack and boarded the cart. Silence surrounded them as the cart pulled away and grief tortured those who would carry the burden around with them forever, but within the cart Richards and Louise rejoiced in the happiness that lay before them and with minimal thought for the grief they had left behind they turned the corner, both in the road and in the winding passage of life.

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Mass Extinction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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CANTON-MOVIE ARTWORK BY PAUL SAMPLE Research Paper

CANTON-MOVIE ARTWORK BY PAUL SAMPLE - Research Paper Example The artwork was painted by Paul Sample showing US troops in Canton Island in 1946. Canton Island was one of the largest and used by the US navy and air force soldiers as stop over. This found when the United States was just out of the Second World War and it acted as a symbolic feature to the US military troops and the civilians to remind them of the impact of the war. This will also remind them how their military army and combat soldiers defended the country from foreign attacks. The artwork is currently kept in the US military museum in Washington DC alongside other early arts. The artworks provide great encouragement to the troops reminding them of their ancient heroes (Henkes 2001). The physical appearance of the painting shows US military troops keeping surveillance of the enemies. One soldier is portrayed to be on top of the raised hill and one on top of the tree to enable him observes enemies from a far horizon and observes any enemy of aerial attacks. It is also important to note that there is a picture of a movie of a man and woman embracing one another. This can be taken to describe the happy moments in the United States before the second war erupted (Henkes 2001). Clearly looking at the picture, it is true to note that all the military soldiers are glued to the movie. This therefore shows that despite the soldiers being involved in the war, they had time for entrainments. There is a bright moonlight above in the blue sky clearly indicating that it is night hour. This shows that the Americans were ready to fight and defend their country despite all odds and that is why they are keeping vigil even at night. The portrait also clearly shows that the military officers are armed with firearms such as guns ready for any attack from their enemies (Henkes 2001). The ground color in the work is mostly brown and beige, it lacks vegetation, and there are scattered stones around the place. There is no sign of movement of the people in the picture but they are sta tioned at different points in the painting facing different directions. The location of the artwork is on a raised ground probably a hill (Henkes 2001). Interpretation of the Artwork. The visual outlook of the artwork has vividly been explained. From the above description, it is important to note the portrait acts a remembrance to the citizens of the important roles done by the US military and the combat soldiers in maintaining the security of their homeland during the period of Second World War. It also reminds and provides good background information for the new generations of America on the suffering and endurance that their ancient natives underwent during the war to protect the country from attacks (Henkes 2001). The portrait can also be interpreted to show the effects of the Second World War on American economy that deteriorated the economic status of the American citizens due to the mass destruction of property. This can be evident by the bare ground that is on the picture, t he lack of vegetation, and the scattered stones. These show the destruction that took place. It is also evident from the picture that the soldiers also only had simple war weapons, the guns. This can mean that during the Second World War, the US military did not have adequate war equipment and mainly depended on the simple guns for defense (Henkes 2001). The brown color in the painting portrays the endurance of the American citizens during the hard times of the war that also had great effect on their economy besides affecting their social lives. The brown color also indicates unity of the people. The Second World War erupted when there was a great racial discrimination in the United States. The blacks were discriminated against by the whites and they were not

Select a type of crime such as rape and write a paper explaining the Research

Select a type of crime such as rape and write a explaining the differences between the consensus and conflict approaches to explaining it - Research Paper Example The paper focuses on two issues: the male-centric conception of rape in current law, and the rape and gender violence as linked to other categories of differentiation. The sociological theories that underpin our understanding of crime and punishment, as well as the justice system have long been the subject of debate by opposing ideological camps. The divergent approaches of â€Å"consensus† and â€Å"conflict† and what approach is the most appropriate lens with which to understand crimes remains to be discussed today, with the debates evolving to meet more modern and complex contemporary problems. It is imperative to begin by defining the concepts. Reid (119) defined the consensus approach as one that â€Å"views the emerging norms and laws of society as representative of the common feeling about what is right and proper; that is, they represent a consensus of views—a mechanism for maintaining social order.† It looks at society as a homogenous whole, without factions or frictions, and making a collective determination on what is right and what is wrong. For example, taking a very recent incident, the harsh punishments m eted against the London street rioters might be deemed appropriate among proponents of the consensus theorists: indeed, the destruction of private property and petty larceny go against collective values and the State must bear down heavily upon those who seek to trample those values. In contrast, the proponents of the conflict theory look at society not as a homogenous whole, but as one wracked by class fault lines. Therefore, laws are not simply collectively-agreed upon rules that establish social order and ensure the efficient and harmonious functioning of society, they are a means by which those who have wealth and power ensure that existing hierarchical arrangements are perpetuated. Whilst Karl Marx did not theorize specifically on criminal justice, his philosophies illumine the conflict theory

Financial project report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8500 words

Financial project report - Essay Example Secondary Research........................................................................................... 27 5.4. Strengths and Limitations. 31 6. Ethical Considerations........ 32 7. Timetable and any special resources required.... 32 8. Conclusions............................................................................................................... 34 9. Recommendations.................................................................................................... 34 10. References. 35 11. Appendices................................................................................................................. 39 Appendix I............................................................................................................. 39 Appendix II........................................................................................................... 41 Appendix III........................................................................................................... 42 1. How does the financial crisis affect the students 2. Background of the study America is currently in the midst of a tremendous economic crisis, with inflation reaching unprecedented and unanticipated levels. This has resulted in a tremendous rise in the cost of living which has made living a challenge to the general public and to the student population in particular as they have limited resources at their disposal. The students, those who are pursuing higher education in colleges and universities outside their home town in particular have to bear the costs of college fees, accommodation, living expenses and other courseware...In such a situation the rise in cost of essential items such as gasoline, electricity negatively impacts the quality of their studies. For the greater majority of students, borrowing money from banks has become a necessity to fund for their college and university education. On average, students in the US now graduate with at least $21,000 in debt and in some extreme circumstances students graduate with $100,000 in debt or more. Tuition fees at private colleges and universities have gone up tremendously - far ahead of inflation. Parents are losing jobs or their salaries are reduced as a result of the economic crisis. Thus the amount that parents can contribute towards their children's education is decreasing. This means that a greater number of students are dependent on loans for their college and university education. Every student who is currently attending or applying to college currently is horrified by what is going on in the financial markets. Things such as bonds for student loans are affected as a result. There will be a direct impact on student borrowings that will most likely be affected by the current financial crisis.

Alternative Energy Essay Example for Free

Alternative Energy Essay Alternative Energy whether used for transportation or utilities such as generating electricity for home or business is a very significant subject going on right now because of the benefits it would provide for us, such as environmental, economic, job security and energy security. I believe alternative energy would be beneficial to our society, especially if it is used in transport; there is many other better, leaner and reusable energy sources out there, for example fuel for vehicles pollutes the air and yet can be changed by using a more natural source that doesnt create as much pollution if not any If we were to experiment more with the usage of natural elements, without mentioning that it would be cheaper for all of us in the long run. Evidence Despoiling nature to get at the tiny trickle of oil we have left wont make any significant difference in what we pay at the pump not now and not ever. And it wont make our country any less dependent on foreign fuel. Our thirst for oil is bad for national security, bad for our economy and bad for the environment, America needs to say no to pumping up Big Oils profits and yes to forging a new clean energy economy. -Build the Clean Energy Economy, www.nrdc.org ?(accessed Feb. 25, 2009). The nation is finally realizing that the solutions to these twin crises are linked. That is because nearly everything that is good for the environment and practically everything that is good in the fight against global warming is a job. We can power America through this recession by repowering America with clean energy. We can create millions of jobs that will make our people wealthier and the Earth healthier. (Jones, 2008) The U.S. renewable energy resource base is vast and practically untapped. Available wind energy resources in 12 Midwestern and Rocky Mountain states equal about 2.5 times the entire electricity production of the United States, Complete elimination of CO2 could occur as early as 2040. Elimination of nuclear power could also occur in that time frame. (Makhijani, 2007) Biofuels can provide a number of environmental advantages over conventional fossil fuels-most notably a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Since the transportation sector accounts for about a third of total U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide (an abundant GHG), cleaner transp ortation fuels can play an important role in addressing climate change. -Environmental Benefits of Biofuels, www.doe.gov ?(accessed July 8, 2008) Solar power is a prime choice in developing an affordable and feasible global power source that can substitute fossil fuels in all the worlds climate zones. The solar radiation reaching the earths surface in one year provides more than 10,000 times the worlds yearly energy needs, with the right product, therefore offering customers the type of added value they are looking for, coupled with innovative marketing technologies such as solar electricity should be able to compete with grid power in industrialized countries.- Solar Generation: Solar Electricity for Over One Billion People and Two Million Jobs by 2020, www.epia.org, ?Sep. 2006. Counterarguments It is estimated that there is enough oil and natural gas offshore and in non-wilderness and non-park lands in the United States but currently ruled off-limits for production by the federal government to fuel 50 million cars and heat nearly 100 million homes for the next 25 years. -â€Å"PuttingAmericasEnergyResourcesto Work, www.exxonmobil.com,?June 2008. Taking into account the EIAs [US Energy Information Agency] projected increases in electricity demand, the renewable sector would need to grow 19% per year for 22 years consecutively to meet U.S. demand by the year 2030. Clearly, these targets are overly ambitious and impractical The government cannot create wealth or jobs; all it can do is take from Peter to pay Paul, opening up a job in green industry A by eliminating one in fossil fuel industry B. (Murphy, 2008) We want to be very clear: solar cells, wind turbines, and biomass-for-energy plantations can never replace even a small fraction of the highly reliable nuclear, fossil and hydroelectric power stations. Claims to the contrary are popular, but irresponsible. (Patzek, Pimentel, 2005) The use of corn for ethanol has led to major increases in the price of U.S. beef, chicken, pork, eggs, breads, cereals, and milk a boon to agribusiness and bane to consumers, as global population soars to 8 or 9 billion toward mid-century, and a s we burn more grain as fuel, shortages and production costs could cause grain prices to skyrocket, taking food from the mouths of the worlds poorest people. (Pimentel, 2008). The suns energy is too widely dispersed and the land area required to collect it too vast for solar to become a large-scale power source. The suns energy is too widely dispersed and the land area required to collect it too vast for solar to become a large-scale power source, he solar problem is that no matter how you design the system it will always be inefficient and capture only a small, uneconomical amount of solar energy. (Leher, 2005) We can come to a conclusion that there are many viable alternate sources of energy that we can and should use to supply our energy needs other than fossil fuels and coal, but if we really want to change the energy we use, we need to make a dramatic change. Even if at a first impression we might think it is more expensive to switch to Alternate energy for transport, imagine how it would be like to have cars that don’t need gas to run, in the long run it would be beneficial not only to our wallets but also to our environment, if we really want a change we should start investing in alternative energy now.

Environmental Health Essay Example for Free

Environmental Health Essay What is Environmental Health? Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect health. Environmental Health is the field of science that studies how the environment influences human health and disease. â€Å"Environment,† in this context, means things in the natural environment like air, water and soil, and also all the physical, chemical, biological and social features of our surroundings. The man-made, or â€Å"built,† environment includes physical structures where people live and work such as homes, offices, schools, farms and factories, as well as community systems such as roads and transportation systems, land use practices and waste management. Consequences of human alteration to the natural environment, such as air pollution, are also parts of the man-made environment. The social environment encompasses lifestyle factors like diet and exercise, socioeconomic status, and other societal influences that may affect health. The Media of Environmental Hazards Air, water and food are the major environmental media or vectors through which exposure to hazardous environmental agents occur. Environmental hazards †¢ The major environmental hazards and their relative importance in various environmental settings. †¢ Chemical agents: pesticides, VOC’S, and PCB’S †¢ Physical agents: ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, vibration, temperature, and noise. †¢ Biological agents: infectious and allergic disorders Interaction between hazardous exposures and humans †¢ Four characteristics critical to exposure assessment: †¢ Route ( Inhalation, Ingestion, Dermal) †¢ Magnitude (Concentration or Dose) †¢ Duration ( Minutes, Hours, Days, Lifetime) †¢ Frequency (Daily, Weekly, Monthly, Seasonally) All of the environmental media are possible exposure routes, and should be considered in a risk assessment. †¢ Humans have access to environmental toxicants by contaminated food, drinking contaminated water, and breathing contaminated air

Personality Traits of a Successful Teacher

Personality Traits of a Successful Teacher When it comes to a career the skills and personality strengths required are surprisingly similar in many ways. However, each professional career has certain strengths they tend to look for. Communication and cooperation are two of the main traits required for all careers. When I found my Signature Themes I realized how they really relate to my future career, becoming an elementary teacher. When becoming a teacher there are certain personality strengths that are required and comes naturally to some people. Harmony, Consistency, Discipline, Communication and Positivity are my five signature themes. These are just a few strengths that teachers need. A few others are obviously the ability to teach, instruct, organize, make presentations and listen. These five signature themes contribute to my future goals by creating opportunities for me to move forward in life, with a lot of positive options and pathways. Positivity is a great quality for a teacher because teachers, especially elementary teachers, need to praise there students and encourage them to be the best they can be. A positive person always looks for the good in someone or a situation. In a lot of ways, Im the person who thinks of the glass being half full instead of half empty. This is an excellent trait for a teacher because students need a positive role model in their lives, and not all have the opportunity to h ave it at home. My family is very close and family oriented, they have all gone through some rough patches and have remained positive throughout everything. I think this plays a major role on me and how I conduct and live my life. My parents are very encouraging with everything and remain positive in almost every situation. I really dont think that being a positive person can have a negative effect on a anyone. Positivity is a good trait to have and it looked up upon, it is a rare trait to have and I know that my friends really appreciate that trait of mine. Positivity is the type of this that rubs off on people and most likely its there to stay. Harmony is a wonderful personality trait of a teacher! Teachers need to have the ability to see both sides of an argument, and be open to listening with an open heart to both parties. I feel that when you argue with someone you should try and keep it to the minimum, and steer them towards harmony and happiness. Teachers bring the good out in students fighting by making them talk about down-to-earth things, things which matter to everyone and they can come to a single agreement on! A teacher understands where a child comes from and theyre background. Maybe a child is brought up by arguing parents and confrontation and fighting is alright, well thats where I as a teacher would step in and come to an agreement and steer clear of debate. Again, my family influences me a lot and always encourages my sisters and I to work it out and to not argue. My mom is a horseback riding instructor and she also has many of these traits. She remains positive and never takes sides in an argument two of h er students may be having. When it comes to harmony hurting my ambitions in life, I dont see how that is possible in any situation. Harmony is a great trait to have, especially for a teacher. Not enough teachers have this trait and I think that those are the ones that everyone dislikes. Positivity and harmony go hand and hand in the teaching world. Communication was voted the number one required trait of a teacher. When you think of a teacher and classroom what is the first thing that pops into your mind? Bulletin boards, a colorful picture that draw your attention, and makes you want to read and find out more. Exactly, teacher and communication go hand and hand, they explain, describe, host, and likes to speak in front of groups of people. I am not afraid to express myself, or to let my opinion be heard. Teachers are known for bringing projects to life and to make them exciting and energetic. People respect teachers for being able to think on their toes and create things out of nowhere. I think this personality trait fits me perfectly; this is why I think I would make a great teacher in the future. In the past, I have had a very hard time with public speaking, I do not like to get in front of a large group of people and give a speech. But when it comes to kids and being very influential it doesnt bother me at all. As I getting older and more confident in my teaching ability I feel that standing up and talking all day and teaching kids valuable information will be very easy. Balance and consistency is important to any teacher. Teachers need to have the ability to not show favoritism, everyone is treated fairly in every situation. In a teachers eyes not one child is more important than any other. Rules apply to everyone equally, no matter what. In my everyday life balance and consistency is very important to me, things need to be consistent and orderly at all times. Consistency will help me with my future plans by being organized and having a known plan, keeping me on track to achieve my goals. Lastly, Discipline is a trait of teachers, and I dont mean spanking and punishing. Discipline simple means ordered and planned, or even predictable. Routines and structure are very important. Lists, short term and long term goals get you through your weeks. When children learn then need discipline, and need a structured environment where they can learn and focus. Teaching discipline to children at a young age drastically improves theyre studying and learning techniques for the rest of their lives. In my life, check lists, post-it notes and routines get me through my day. This helps me achieve deadlines and finish all of my homework on time. Children need discipline, when things are repetitive; you learn them quicker and in most cases, easier. Having discipline in your life in never a bad thing, it makes you have more respect for yourself and others around you. I know that when I achieve my goals and still have time left I feel great. Achieving goals is such a great feeling. These five personality traits are major qualities a teacher should have. All good teachers love children and have a need to improve their lives somehow. Harmony, Discipline, Consistency, Communication and positivity are just a few of my personality traits that go towards teaching and making the world a better place. In order for me to be successful in my future goals I have to be persistent and do my best in school, when it is time to do my internship in two years, and when it comes time for me to go out into the world and become an elementary school teacher and have a positive input on young childrens lives. References Do future teachers choose wisely: a study of pre-service teachers personality preference profiles | College Student Journal | Find Articles at BNET. (n.d.). Find Articles at BNET | News Articles, Magazine Back Issues Reference Articles on All Topics. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FCR/is_3_39/ai_n15384396/ McKay, D. R. (n.d.). Teacher Preschool, Elementary and Secondary School Teachers Career Information. Career Planning Career Planning Guide. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from http://careerplanning.about.com/od/occupations/p/teacher.htm ReidÂÂ  , R. K. (n.d.). StrengthsQuest. Onondaga Community College Students students.sunyocc.edu. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from http://students.sunyocc.edu/support.aspx?menu=596id=15462 Skills in jobs. (n.d.). University of Kent the UKs European university . Retrieved April 12, 2010, from http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/sk/skillsinjobs.htm#TEACHERS

The Difficulty of Remembering Robert Browning :: Biography Biographies Essays

The Difficulty of Remembering Robert Browning      Ã‚  Ã‚   It is no great revelation that people primarily either want to be remembered or forgotten, they either want to be noticed or they want to disappear. And it's this binary that celebrities seem to struggle with all the time; constantly wanting to be in the spotlight and all the fame and glory that goes along with it. But once their integrity is compromised, they run and hide and declare their lives to be personal, out of view of the public eye. No one seems to contradict this binary of fame / seclusion more than poet Robert Browning. Although he wanted to be known and remembered, every conscious decision he made within his career seems to have prevented this.    Born in 1812, Robert Browning led a shielded suburban life, in the south of France (Damrosch, 1305). Both his parents were supportive and encouraging of his interests especially when, at the age of 14, he expressed an interest in poetry (Damrosch, 1305).   The poet that sparked Browning's interest in poetry was none other than Percy Bysshe Shelley. P.B. Shelley's poetry affected Browning greatly and even though Browning wasn't writing poetry yet at this time, Shelley was influencing him in other ways (Damrosch, 1305). Percy Shelley was a poet widely known for his radical ideas and beliefs; it was this recognition that most attracted Browning. Robert Browning's path to being a poet was not direct. It was because of Shelley that Browning found this path, but it would be years before he would begin writing (Damrosch, 1305). Browning tried many other career paths before publishing his first poem, among them art, music, law and business (Damrosch, 1305). He published his first poem anonymously at the age of 21 (Damrosch, 1305). It was titled Pauline and was poorly received (Damrosch, 1305). Publishing his first poem anonymously goes against Browning's desire to be well known. Over the next ten years, Browning published various plays and poems that were as poorly received as his first poem (Damrosch, 1305). But it was in 1842 that Browning would get much deserved recognition for his work

Essay --

1. What controls the Nanowire diameter ? Seed particle size / volume can be considered as a major factor controlling the Nanowire growth in conjunction with super saturation which is considered as a major factor controlling the Nanowire growth. Seed particle in most of the cases is a catalyst, e.g. Au. Sung Keun Lim et al [3] related mathematically the Nanowire diameter with the volume of seed particle and parameter beta (ÃŽ ²) which is the Particle-Nanowire contact angle. These authors [3] made use of two different precursors (group III and group V) : one soluble in the seed and other insoluble in the seed particle which in this case is Au. They proposed a mechanics that controls the Nanowire diameter and this mechanism is based on the diffusion (or more precisely dissolution) of the soluble precursor in to the seed particle and further reaction with the insoluble precursor If we operate at the steady state in such case Nanowire diameter remains constant because the rate of injection of soluble precursor into the seed and rate of further reaction with insoluble precursor are exactly t...

The Importance of Class Status in British Society as Depicted in Britis

The Importance of Class Status in British Society as Depicted in British Sitcoms Focusing on British sitcoms as a genre of study, one can see many different levels in the structure of British society. Of particular interest is the classification of the characters into their social classes. In Porridge, Fletcher is seen as a working class convict who is confined to his place in society. However, within his incarceration a hierarchy among his "colleagues" is also apparent. Satisfied with his place at the top of this power structure, Fletcher continually maneuvers himself to improve his life without the ability to leave his social stratum. In contrast to Fletcher’s contentment is the character of Harold in Steptoe and Son. As a rag and bone man, Harold occupies one of the least respected jobs and, therefore, one of the lowest social statuses in society. Irritation with his rank propels Harold into trying to "better" his life; however, he is unsuccessful. Because Harold’s ability to improve himself is dependent on intelligence, which he defines as upwar d mobility on the social ladder, his ignorance prevents him from ever leaving his classified status. By comparing the situations of Fletcher and Harold, we will examine the question of why Fletcher is able to make small advances (even though the cyclical cycle of sitcoms does not allow for permanent change), while Harold is denied any advancement. Fletcher and his viewers easily accept his place as a convict because background information suggests that porridge life, or prison life, is normal for Fletcher. His character’s main role and source of humor are his continually successful attempts to undermine the authorities and receive the best treatment possible. In the episode enti... ...se he cannot disrupt society any more than he already has, while an upward movement by Harold may reveal a sign of weakness in the class distinctions of the viewers. In addition to viewers from a higher class looking down upon Harold, one must also consider that those within his class may disapprove of his attempt to change positions in society. Therefore, when analyzing a situation comedy and considering a character’s attempt to shift from one social class to another, one must recognize the unfair restrictions placed on the characters, and the implications that movement may have for the viewers. Works Cited Storry, Mike and Peter Childs eds. British Cultural Identities. New York: Routedge, 1997. "A Day Out" Porridge. British Broadcasting Company. BBC. 26 September 1974. "A Star is Born." Steptoe and Son. British Broadcasting Company. BBC. 28 February 1972.

Pay for Performance

Pay for Performance Park University Overview Incentive pay, also known as â€Å"pay for performance† is generally given for specific performance results rather than simply for time worked. While incentives are not the answer to all personnel challenges, they can do much to increase worker performance. (Billikopf) Performance pay has various names: merit pay, pay for performance, knowledge-and-skill- based pay, or individual or group incentive pay. Delisio) Pay for performance systems have further been proven to have two advantages for organizations: attracting more high-quality employees and motivating employees to exert more effort at their jobs. (Gordon, Kaswin) This paper will show the positive benefits of performance pay as well as some steps to implement the pay for performance program. Productivity Implications Companies that have switched from salaries to individual incentives have increased productivity dramatically—some by as much as 44 percent.Linking pay to p erformance not only motivates but also helps to recruit and retain the most talented employees. New graduates seek to join organizations that make use of performance-related rewards, and they have long-term loyalty to these organizations. The use of performance pay has also grown in popularity, as 67 percent of companies offer some form of performance pay to employees below the executive level. Likewise, the practice of compensating managers below the senior executive level with stock options and other forms of long-term incentives has risen dramatically.This is because performance-sensitive pay aligns the interest of all levels of employees with the interests of shareholders. (Gordon, Kaswin) Implementing a pay for performance system has been shown to resolve organizational problems because it aligns the preferences of firms and employees. In addition, creating a pay for performance system serves as a sorting mechanism to identify and attract the most capable employees. Gordon, Kas win) The economic downturn has accentuated the need to contain compensation costs by holding down fixed-based salary expenses. To maintain competitive pay plans, an increasing number of companies are giving more employees across different job functions the opportunity to earn variable, performance-driven incentives for achieving individual and organizational goals. (Gordon, Kaswin) Pay for Performance Objectives Developing a pay for performance philosophy and strategy is easier when we understand what such an approach is intended to achieve.If effectively constructed, pay for performance compensation plans should help a company fulfill the following objectives: * Recruit and retain the highest quality employees * Communicate and reinforce the values, goals and objectives of the company * Engage employees in the organization's success * Reward contributors for successful achievements (The VisionLink Advisory Group) Line of Sight Ultimately, the combination of rewards strategies that a company institutes should help to raw a correlation in the mind of the employees between interdependent elements: * Vision – where is this company going? * Strategy – how is it going to get there? * Roles and Expectations – what role does each key person have in that strategy and what is expected of him or her in that role? * Rewards – how will each employee be financially rewarded for the achievement of the expectations associated with his or her role    Pay for performance is the mechanism that is used to create this â€Å"line of sight† between related elements of company culture and purpose.In the final analysis, compensation needs to reinforce the behaviors that are desired within the strategy framework of the company in a way that is compelling enough to produce the desired performance. (The VisionLink Advisory Group) In adopting a rewards philosophy for how people will be remunerated for their contributions within an organization, a comp any has to determine what the right balance should be between short and long-term compensation and guaranteed versus performance compensation.Pivotal in that philosophy development is how and to what extent pay will be tied to specific types of performance. This issue will not be treated the same in every organization. However, every business should be able to identify certain performance objectives it wants its workforce to fulfill and the financial outcome that will be achieved if that result is attained. Such a projection can be translated into an increased shareholder value figure. (The VisionLink Advisory Group)Features of Effective Plans Top Management Support Supervisors must understand the incentive pay process in order to support and administer it. Oftentimes, a lack of understanding causes managers to ignore or adapt the process as they see fit. Moreover, if supervisors are not trained on how to measure performance, the process will not be standardized across the company. (Gordon, Kaswin) Having buy-in from key stakeholders is crucial for the success of an incentive pay system.For example, if top management does not support such a program, lower-level managers will place little importance on effectively administering the program. Hence, a lack of top management support often leads to a lack of accountability. (Gordon, Kaswin) Communication Consistent and methodical communication is necessary when implementing an incentive pay plan. It will ensure employees understand what is expected of them while decreasing the likelihood of morale problems that result from misinterpretations of how incentives are awarded. Gordon, Kaswin) Performance Management Oftentimes, a flawed performance management system is the main reason an incentive pay system in not successful. When designing a performance management process that will be linked with pay, it is imperative that both employees and managers know what the individual goals are, how they will be measured, and ho w they will be compensated when achieved. Managers must also be careful to ensure that there is adequate differentiation between high and low performers. If mediocre employees are given an average merit increase, hey will perceive that their performance is adequate. Conversely, if excellent performers only receive a little more in incentive pay than average performers, they will perceive that the company does not value their performance. (Gordon, Kaswin) Appropriate Rewards The amount of incentive a company should offer to an individual depends on current income, amount of effort needed to invest, likelihood of obtaining the reward, acceptance of risk, equity of reward and contribution, and industry standards.A minimum for incentive pay is considered to be 5 to 15 percent of an individual’s base pay. (Gordon, Kaswin) Considerations before Implementing a Plan The best compensation plans take into account several key considerations. Before instituting a pay for performance syst em, companies should define which employees should be eligible for the program. Furthermore, it is important for companies to determine the role of equity in a total rewards framework from the perspectives of the employee and employer, as well as in terms of cost.Steps should be taken to (1) review the current objectives and purpose of the equity plan; (2) identify alternative rewards; (3) develop a communication plan for how the effectiveness of the program will be measured; (4) gather employees’ perspectives via surveys, focus groups, or internal research; (5) gather external market information; (6) determine the costs; (7) develop recommendations for design change; and (8) create the communication plan. The communication strategy for the program should encompass the value employees place on various rewards and how the changes will be perceived by employees.It should then monitor and manage employees’ reactions to the changes in their compensation structure. (Gordon, Kaswin) Objectives of a Broad-Based Incentive Plan When creating an incentive plan, the organization has to determine and clearly define the goals for the program. The objectives should be aligned with the business strategy. These goals should be utilized to shape the incentive plan as well as the expectations and objectives of individual employees. A main reason why incentive plans fail is because they are introduced as an inflexible process.The incentive plan should be first implemented on a small group of employees in order to determine the flaws and rectify them before implementing them across the enterprise. Once the plan is implemented, it should be regularly adapted. (Gordon, Kaswin) If companies want a pay for performance system, the firm should define the desired performance and establish methods of measuring it first. Then, connect goals for individuals, for business units, and for the company. Meanwhile, track everyone’s progress and periodically give back the dat a to raise everyone’s awareness of the program.Sixty-two percent of compensation professionals report that their organizations did not attempt to measure the return on investment of their compensation program. (Gordon, Kaswin) Conclusion Research indicates that broad-based incentive plans can be utilized as a means to encourage both employee performance and productivity. When implementing an incentive plan, several considerations are needed to ensure the plan is successful. However, it is important to note that incentive plans cannot ensure employee productivity by themselves. They must be coupled with effective human resources practices in order to ensure a successful work environment.These include determining the appropriate rewards, instituting comprehensive performance management systems, widespread and effective communication, as well as buy-in from top management to support the compensation plan. Over the past decade and increasingly in the past year, performance pay ha s become the standard as companies reward strong performance and lower overhead costs. This trend is expected to continue in the coming years. (Gordon, Kaswin) Like most things in business, compensation is something that requires evaluation, study, assessment, strategy, modeling and integration.Achieving a pay for performance culture does not happen without paying attention to the behaviors, activities, rewards and motivations that have to be linked and reinforced through a well-engineered and effectively executed process. And if that process does not tie rewards to shareholder financial objectives, employ the proper mix of compensation elements, result in meaningful dollars, embrace performance that employees can impact and are effectively communicated and reinforced, then the results it produces will likely fall short. (The VisionLink Advisory Group) Pay for performance systems need ngoing attention to keep them functioning properly. Organizational goals will change; performance g oals and measures will become obsolete; performance may improve or decline; managers may make errors in evaluating performance or allocating rewards. For all these reasons and more, agencies need to monitor the operation and effectiveness of their pay for performance systems and modify them accordingly. Only by giving the pay systems and related organizational requirements the ongoing attention that they warrant will agencies be able to obtain optimal results from their pay for performance systems. U. S. Merit Systems Protection Board) Works Cited Billikopf, Gregoria. (2001) Incentive Pay (Pay for Performance). The Regents of the University of California, retrieved from http://www. cnr. berkeley. edu/ucce50/ag-labor/7labor/08. htm The VisionLink Advisory Group, The Five Essentials of Pay for Performance, retrieved from http://www. vladvisors. com/images/PDF/VisionLink_Five-Essentials-Pay-For-Performance. pdf Gordon, A. A. , Kaswin, J. L. , Effective Employee Incentive Plans: Feature s and Implementation  Processes, Cornell HR Review, 2010, retrieved from http://cornellhrreview. rg/2010/05/31/effective-employee-incentive-plans-features-and-implementation-processes/ U. S. Merit Systems Protection Board, (2006) Designing an Effective Pay for Performance Compensation System. Retrieved from http://www. mspb. gov/netsearch/viewdocs. aspx? docnumber=224104;version=224323;application=ACROBAT Delisio, E. R. , Pay for Performance: What Are the Issues? , retrieved from http://www. educationworld. com/a_issues/issues/issues374a. shtml